Assessing The Usefulness Of An Ecological Approach Social Work Essay

Assessing The Usefulness Of An Ecological Approach Social Work Essay Social work theories represent sets of ideas that assist in explaining the reasons for occurrence of events or why specific events happened in particular ways and are used to predict likely future actions of present outcomes. It is important to appreciate that theories, whilst based on reasoning and evidence, are not conclusively proved. In social work practice they provide alternative frameworks for understanding issues by the linkage of sets of ideas, and help people to make sense of specific situations or circumstances. Their application helps social workers in guiding practice and in achieving direction in their efforts. This study takes up the ecological approach for discussion and assesses its usefulness for social work practice. The ecological approach is also compared with humanism and existentialism and its various aspects are critically analysed with respect to achievement of managerialism and accountability in social work practice. Discussion Overview of Ecological Approach Kurt Lewin, (Plas, 1981), states that good theory is essentially practical. It provides a way to look at the world and guides action for the achievement of vision of the way things should be. Ecological theory, many experts feel, fits with Lewins maxim and has the potential to give social workers, both a practical perspective for effective social intervention, and a larger perspective for viewing and assessing the social world (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). Whilst Roger Barker, (1968), initiated the application of ecological concepts to analysis of human behaviour, the application of such ecological perspectives to social work practice did not occur until it was taken up by Carel Germain in the mid 1970s (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The ecological approach has since then become progressively popular among social workers and is now commonly used as a practice approach for intervention (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The approach, despite becoming more commonly used, does have some major limitati ons, chief among which is the lack of (a) clearly defined procedures for engagement in assessment, and (b) specific sets of techniques and strategies for intervention (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The adoption of the ecological approach enables social work practitioners to understand the significance of the adaptive fit between the environment and organisms (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). An appreciation of such a fit in turn enables the emergence of a practice model that essentially focuses on the importance of locating ways and means to first assist individuals in adapting to their environments and second in the formulation of strategies for changing environmental elements that could cause problems for service users (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). It is important to understand three concepts, namely (a) behaviour settings, (b) the ecosystem and (c) definition of client problems, in order to understand and appreciate the fit between organisms and their environment (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). An understanding of these concepts helps in understanding the significantly unconventional and different approach of the ecological perspective (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The concept of behaviour settings provides fresh insights in the relationship that exists between individual behaviour and environmental setting. Barker and Gum (1964), found that individuals react differently to different types of environment. Analysis of behaviour setting helps social workers to conceptualise the problems of service users and is considered to be a basic unit of analysis for the application of the ecological approach to social work practice. The behaviour setting, it must however be clarified, represents more than the traditional concept of behaviour as the response to a stimulus and is perceived to be a complex relationship of people, setting, time and individual behaviour. A conglomerate of such behaviour settings forms ecology (Germain Bloom, 1999, p 16-22). Specific individuals function in more than one specific ecology. The ecosystem of individuals consists of the various inter-relationships and the conglomeration of such ecologies (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The ecosystem of a child, for example comprises of the self, the family, the school and the larger community (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). It is important to understand that the client, in such a concept of ecosystem is an integral component of the ecological system and cannot be juxtaposed with the larger environment (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The ecosystem of an individual consists of four distinct levels, namely the micro-system, the meso-system, the exo-system, and the macro-system. The micro-system represents the immediate environment, viz. the impact of personality characteristics of an individual on other family members (Jones, 2010, p 67). The meso-system is more complex and refers to the interactional processes that occur between multiple micro-systems (Jones, 2010, p 67). Th e exo-system and macro-system likewise refer to more generalised levels and represent more extensive interaction of ecologies (Jones, 2010, p 67). Â  The service user in such circumstances becomes the defining and primary member of the eco system that in turn comprises of various overlapping subsistence like the family, the work place and the larger community (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The psychosocial development and adjustment of individuals are perceived to be the consequence of transactions between individuals and their environments. The ecological perspective suggests the occurrence of cyclic and bidirectional activities between individuals and their environments (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The environment in the first place affects the development and adjustment of individuals. The behaviours of individuals lead to responses inside the environment and the altered environment thereafter exerts a different pressure on the individual (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). Social workers can view this process as sequential or simultaneous mutual influence, for example X affects Y, which again affects X or X and Y come together to form a unity that defines the situation (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). This concept and these view points are important because they lead to the formulation of new ways for conducting of assessment and carrying out of intervention in social work practice (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The adoption of the ecological view point leads to the shifting of focus from individual personality and behavioural characteristics to relationships between individuals, their families, their communities and other ecologies that are included in their eco systems (Pardeck, 1 988, p 92-100). Most people do operate in social ecologies that are adaptive or congruent and where people are in harmony with the social norms of their environments (Norman, 2000, p 11-17). The requirement for social work intervention comes about when such adaptive fits cease to exist and lead to mal adjustments (Norman, 2000, p 11-17). The ecological perspective differs significantly from traditional social work view points on definition of problems of service users (Tew, 2005, p 31-36). Most conventional perspectives concentrate on individuals for definition of problems of service users and perceive such service users to be deviant, behaviourally troubled or emotionally disturbed (Tew, 2005, p 31-36). The ecological approach very importantly does not perceive the symptoms of service users kin terms of individual pathologies but looks at such symptoms to be indicative of malfunctioning eco systems (Tew, 2005, p 31-36). Advocates of the ecological approach are likely to perceive emotional disturbances to be comprehensive problems that are occurring in the continuous adaptation that is taking place between organisms and their environments (Wilson, 1999, p 4-11). Mal-adoptions are thus felt to reside not just in the activity of individuals upon their environments but also of the environments upon individuals (Wilson, 1999, p 4-11). Individual problems and difficulties in social functioning are thus perceived to stem from interactive, dynamic and reciprocal sets of forces that work between individuals and their eco systems (Wilson, 1999, p 4-11). The relationship between problematic social functioning and ecology has been studied in various relationships between (a) social class and hospitalisation for psychiatric causes, (b) probability of specific types of mental ailments and spatial community patterns and (c) suicide rates and social organisation of communities (Peters Marshall, 1996, p 17-32). It is evident that the adoption of the ecological perspective requires a radical shift of approach by social workers, who must move away from individuals and try to understand a unit that is termed as individual-in-ecology (Peters Marshall, 1996, p 17-32). Such an approach requires the viewing of individual problems in terms of mal adaptive systems and even differences in labelling of clients, who for example should be termed as disturbing clients rather than emotionally disturbed (Peters Marshall, 1996, p 17-32). Application of Ecological Approach for Intervention The ecological strategy for intervention obviously calls for an ecological assessment of the problems of service users (Norman, 2000, p 11-17). Such ecological assessment essentially involves two important issues, namely (a) the identification of reasons for discord in eco systems and sources of strength, which can be utilised to enhance the level of fit between service users and important people in the lives, and (b) specification of the services that will be needed to allow service users to progress towards achievement of desired goals (Norman, 2000, p 11-17). Traditional models of social work, it is easy to understand, are far more simplistic than the ecological assessment approach (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). Such methods are narrower and perceive individual service users to be the only focus of the assessment procedure (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). The intervention model in the ecological approach comprises of specific steps that assist in translation of such assessment into appropriate strategies for intervention (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). Such an intervention approach consists of seven specific stages and can be applied in a number of practice areas (Nash, et al, 2005, p 32-41). The intervention model in the ecological approach is similar to other traditional approaches with regard to gathering of data but deviates significantly in the ways in which social work practitioners conceptualise and organise the processes of assessment and intervention (Nash, et al, 2005, p 32-41). The seven important stages in the intervention process comprise of (a) entering the system, (b) mapping the ecology, (c) assessing the ecology, (d) creating a vision for change, (e) coordinating and communicating, (f) reassessing and (g) evaluating (Nash, et al, 2005, p 32-41). These steps are significantly different from traditional methods of assessment and intervention and plays far greater responsibilities on the shoulders of social work practitioners (Nash, et al, 2005, p 32-41). The first step of the social work practitioner concerns entering the exo-system of the world of the service user, such a process involves assessment of various relationships in the life of the service user and identification of an entry point into the world of the service user (Kerson, 2002, p 8-14). Assessment of relationships in such circumstances involves examination of the various sub systems like the immediate family, the workplace and the community that shape the world of the service user (Norman, 2000, p 11-17). The social work practitioner can obtain significant information from examination of such sub systems for the formulation of intervention strategies (Norman, 2000, p 11-17). Assessment of various subsystems is thereafter followed by entry into the world of the client (Norman, 2000, p 11-17). This is largely done through an interview involving the social worker, the service user and people in his or her immediate family (Kerson, 2002, p 8-14). The social worker, after en tering the world of the service user commences ecological mapping (Kerson, 2002, p 8-14). Such mapping involves analysis of various sub systems and identification of people and events that are relevant to the challenges confronting the service user (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). Such mapping involves interaction with representatives of different sub systems like spouse, parents or immediate friends and leads to obtaining of very important information (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The mapping of ecology is followed by interpretation and assessment. Social workers, at this stage of the process search for important problems and sources of strength in the eco system of service users (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). The description of relationships and recurring themes in the lives of service users forms an important aspect of this stage and helps in identifying problems as well as sources of strength that can help the service users in achieving a better fit with the environment (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). Assessment of ecology is followed by locating the areas that require to be altered to enhance the social functioning of service users (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). Social workers whilst focusing on the required change need to consider the service users total eco system and use all available strengths in the ecology (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). Practitioners should be open to different change possibilities and implement proposed plans of action after obtaining the agreement of service users (Meinert, et al, 1994, p 26-33). Social workers must communicate and coordinate with people in the eco system during much of the intervention process (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). A significant part of the change process lies in the hands of important people in the eco systems of service users and practitioners need to offer support and facilitate change efforts through home visits and telephone calls (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). Reassessment and evaluation also form important components of the ecological intervention process (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). Social workers should be open on remapping the ecology and working through subsequent stages if the intervention efforts do not appear to be achieving their stated objectives (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The final stage of intervention that is the comprehensive evaluation of the process concerns the gathering of information through informal meetings and the use of structure questionnaires (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). The evaluation process is important for practitioners becaus e it enables them to enhance the quality of their ecological approach based treatment procedure (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ecological Approach It is important to understand that ecological perspectives help social workers significantly in understanding human problems to essentially be outcomes of continuous transactions of different types between environments and people (Ginsburg, 1990, p 12-21). The conceptualising of human problems in this way helps social workers in understanding that discord between people and their environment can lead specifically to adverse physical, emotional and social effects upon people (Ginsburg, 1990, p 12-21). Such a focus is also a unifying feature of social work practice. The adoption of this approach helps social workers in taking away their focus from individuals as deviants with emotional and mental difficulties and helps in placing them simply as individuals who have mal-adaption with their environments (Henderson, 1994, p 38-45). The investigation and assessment process under this approach also allows social workers to interact with various people who are important to the service user a nd build an intervention plan that involves not just the social worker and the service user but also other people who are close to the service user, understand his or her problems and are able to help the service user in achieving the desired objectives (Henderson, 1994, p 38-45). Whilst the ecological approach helps social workers significantly in conceptualising the essential concerns of social work practice, the approach continues to have some inherent difficulties and problems (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). It does not for example provide clearly laid down sets of procedures and processes for assessment and intervention, as well as strategies and reasoning for their use (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). Social workers thus use the approach for understanding the basic relationships between service users and their environments but have to thereafter devise and formulate their own assessment and intervention procedures (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). It has also disturbingly been found that when social workers intervene in the eco systems of service users by opening up communication channels with other people in the eco system, such interventions often do not have clarity in terms of outcomes and can lead to negative consequences (Pardeck, 1988, p 92-100). Critics of the eco logical approach also argue that its application leads practitioners to perceive problems with such broad perspectives that practitioners attempt to plan so comprehensively that actual effectiveness of practice gets jeopardised (Henderson, 1994, p 38-45). Whilst such disadvantages and criticisms do have merit and must be considered by workers who opt to use the ecological approach, its adoption and application does enable social workers to obtain much larger perspectives and greater and more dynamic understanding of individuals and their social, cultural and physical environments (Henderson, 1994, p 38-45). The adoption of such perspectives results in avoidance of blaming of victims and in location of assessment and intervention of the issue in the ecosystem of service users (Henderson, 1994, p 38-45). References Barker, R., 1968, Ecological Psychology: Concepts and Methods for Studying the Environment of Human Behaviour, Stanford, California: Stanford University. Barker, R., Gump, P., 1964, Big School, Small School, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. Germain, C., 1973, An Ecological Perspective in Casework, Social Casework, 54, 323-330. Germain, C. B., Bloom, M., 1999, Human Behavior in the Social Environment: An Ecological View (2nd ed.), New York: Columbia University Press. Ginsburg, E. H., 1990, Effective Interventions: Applying Learning Theory to School Social Work, New York: Greenwood Press. Henderson, G., 1994, Social Work Interventions: Helping People of Color, Westport, CT: Bergin Garvey. Jones, P., 2010, Responding to the Ecological Crisis: Transformative Pathways for Social Work Education, Journal of Social Work Education, 46(1), 67. Kerson, T. S., 2002, Boundary Spanning: An Ecological Reinterpretation of Social Work Practice in Health and Mental Health Systems, New York: Columbia University Press. Meinert, R. G., Pardeck, J. T., Sullivan, W. P. (Eds.), 1994, Issues in Social Work: A Critical Analysis, Westport, CT: Auburn House. Nash, M., Munford, R., ODonoghue, K. (Eds.), 2005, Social Work Theories in Action, London: Jessica Kingsley. Norman, E. (Ed.), 2000, Resiliency Enhancement: Putting the Strengths Perspective into Social Work Practice, New York: Columbia University Press. Pardeck, T. J., 1988, Social Treatment through an Ecological Approach, Clinical Social Work Journal, Vol 16, No 1. Peters, M., Marshall, J., 1996, Individualism and Community: Education and Social Policy in the Postmodern Condition, London: Falmer Press. Plas, J., 1981, The Psychologist in the School Community: A Liaison Role, School Psychology Review, 10, 72-81. Tew, J. (Ed.)., 2005, Social Perspectives in Mental Health: Developing Social Models to Understand and Work with Mental Distress, London: Jessica Kingsley. Wilson, D. J., 1999, Indigenous South Americans of the Past and Present: An Ecological Perspective, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Depression Leading to Suicide Essay -- hopelessness,

One who suffers from depression may think about and or attempt suicide because of the extreme emotional pain and hopelessness they feel. It is during this time that one believes the only relief is in by putting an end to their lives. The risk factors that are identified in the assessment by Dr. Niolon state â€Å"the first thing to remember is these three things: consult- this allows for another opinion and better care as well as to protect you and document everything you do every question you ask the client and everyone you speak too and evaluate the client’s risks† (Niolon, R. PhD., 1999). Factors that influence suicide risk are mental diagnosis, particularly depression and substance abuse, or Borderline Personality Disorder which increases risk. Age- Individuals over the age of forty-five (45) are at a higher rate. Gender (women try more frequently while men try more fatal means). Marital status (never married, divorced, newly separated are the highest rate while unm arried are lowest risk). History of suicide in their family recent job loss, Caucasians are at a higher risk than ethnic minorities. (Niolon,R. Ph.D.,1999). Depression, has occurred at some point in a great many people's lives. Depression that spiraled out of control into suicide thoughts and in some cases it may have even turned into attempts. Such thoughts and/ and or actions can be feeling more than a person can handle by themselves. There are warning signs, such as, feelings of sadness for no reason at all, loss of interest in do in things, such as participating in activities with friends or going to outside social events, it also includes not being albe to enjoy activities that once brought them happiness and pleasure. Most of society is able to disch... ...hem, but if given the right information it is possible to encourage them to go to their family and friends , and that suicide is certainly not the answer and that there is help is available. For those who are affected by others who suffer from depression and suicidal thoughts/and or attempts you need help to you may also need help from the emotional stress and worry that it has caused you, group counseling/and or therapy. Works Cited Niolon,R.,Ph.D., (1999). Resources for students and professionals. Suicide Assessment. Retrieved from http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/counseling/suicide.html PsyWeb.Com. (2013). Depression and Mental Health Resources. Retrieved from http://www.psyweb.com/mdisord/jsp/gendepress.jsp Conwell Y, Brent D. Suicide and aging. I: patterns of psychiatric diagnosis. International Psychogeriatrics, 1995; 7(2): 149-64.

Population Trends and Problems of Public Health Essay

The scope and emphasis of a public health program are necessarily influenced by the changing characteristics of the population it serves. The rate of population growth affects long-range planning of community health and medical facilities. Alterations in age composition, internal migration of racial or industrial groups, changes in population density and urban-rural movement require current adaptation of the health program to solve the new problems thus created. Among the various characteristics of recent population trends, aging of the population is one of the most fundamental in its bearing on national health. The social and economic effects of an aging population have long been recognized. Dr. Louis I. Dublin appraised the problem of old age in some detail in 1926, when the provision of economic security for the aged was the dominant theme of contemporary discussion. 1 The passage of the Social Security Act in 1935 represented the fruits of the efforts of this early period. Adjustment of national policy with respect to the health problems associated with aging of the population has been slower in development. Under the terms of the Social Security Act, a limited expansion of activities designed to promote the health of older adults—control of cancer and pneumonia, and industrial hygiene services—has been made This paper was presented at the Eighteenth Annual Conference of the Milbank Memorial Fund, April 2–3, 1940. The Milbank Quarterly, Vol. 83, No. 4, 2005 (pp. 569–608) c 2005 Milbank Memorial Fund. Published by Blackwell Publishing. Reprinted from The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1940 (pp. 359–92). Style and usage are unchanged. possible in the cooperating States. However, the Act makes no provision for the solution of such fundamental problems as invalidity insurance and medical care of the aged. During the past five years, the health aspects of old age have received increasing attention in the discussions of public health administrators. It therefore seems appropriate to resurvey this general problem, and to consider, in particular, the nature of future trends in mortality, morbidity, and the receipt of medical care which may be expected solely as a result of changing age structure of the population. The Effect on the Death Rate The effect of a declining proportion of children and an increasing proportion of â€Å"elders† on the future trend of the death rate may be readily predicated from the characteristics of age variation in mortality, which are generally familiar. The period of infancy is characterized by a large proportion of fatally terminating illnesses. Following the high mortality of the first year, the death rate declines rapidly in the succeeding years of early childhood, and the rate among children 5 to 14 years of age is lower than in any period of life. The age curve of mortality remains at a relatively low level in youth and the young adult ages. During the period of middle age, a marked upward trend in the death rate becomes apparent, and the increase thereafter is progressive. The sharp downward trend in the death rate following infancy and the rapid rise which occurs during middle and old age are the most pronounced characteristics of age variation in mortality. The mortality rate in infancy and early childhood has shown a marked reduction in the present century, while the rate at the advanced ages has remained practically unchanged. Thus, the death rate at the older ages has shown an increasing relative excess over the rate in the early years of life. Furthermore, aging of the population has increased the number of older persons exposed to the chance of death. Deaths of persons 45 years of age and over constituted over two-thirds of all deaths in this country in 1935; in the Registration States of 1900, the proportion was approximately two-fifths. It thus results that the diseases which at present are the leading causes of death in the population of all ages are largely those characteristic of middle and old age. Diseases of the heart, cerebral hemorrhage, nephritis, cancer, and diabetes accounted for 65 per cent of the deaths among persons 45 years of age and over, and for 44 per cent of the total deaths

The Re-birth, Revolt, and Removal of the Cherokee Essay

The Re-birth, Revolt, and Removal of the Cherokee The Cherokee were forced into giving up most of their land in the eighteenth century. Through fraudulent treaties and unjust deals the Cherokee lost close to all of their land during this time. One of the biggest loses coming from Hendersons Purchase, in Kentucky, 1775. In an effort to stop the complete takeover of all Indian land, the Cherokees go through a transformation in order to survive in a new world. The great Cherokee renascence of 1794-1833 was the re-birth of that people in the image of the United States, yet with a difference. (McLoughlin, Preface) The Cherokee renascence was an attempt to conform to a new economic and political society, through education in the†¦show more content†¦The laws that the natives had made, became more elaborate, and were put together as their constitution in 1827. The Cherokees became prime example of a developing Indian, and were labeled as, the most civilized tribe in America. (McLoughlin, pg. 279) The Cherokees became self-sufficient and began competing with American traders, instead of having to rely on their goods to survive. Their newfound education also helped in their ability to reason, and bargain. Another important aspect in this renascence, that affected Indian education, was the emergence of mixed-blood Indians. The mixed-blood Indians brought a new blend of people who had the knowledge of both cultures and could better combine both ways of living into one that was better off. They adopted many European customs while outlining American way of life, such as, a representative government, schools, churches, roads, and even styles of fashion. The Cherokee also took on American thoughts on slavery, and in many cases had slaves. Since the Cherokees homeland was in the Deep South, they thought it would be prudent politically to take the side of slavery. Taking on these new European customs has an adverse effect on traditional Indian ways. They still celebrated some of their old festivals-the Green Corn Dance for Thanksgiving, the purification ritual, the lighting of the newShow MoreRelatedRevisiting, Revising, and Reviving Americas Founding Era6252 Words   |  26 PagesHamilton: in the popular mind this band of worthies, more marble monuments than mere mortals, guides America towards its grand destiny with a sure and steady hand. [F]or the vast majority of contemporary Americans, writes historian Joseph Ellis, the birth of this nation is shrouded by a golden ha ze or halo.(1) So easy, so tame, so much a land of foregone conclusions does Americas Revolution appear that we tend to honor and ignore it rather than study it. In 1976, the 200th birthday of the DeclarationRead MorePre-Columbian Period9302 Words   |  38 Pagesindigenous peoples were semi-nomadic tribes of hunter-gatherers; others were sedentary and agricultural civilizations. Many formed new tribes or confederations in response to European colonization. Well-known groups included the Huron, Apache Tribe, Cherokee, Sioux, Delaware, Algonquin, Choctaw, Mohegan, Iroquois (which included the Mohawk nation, Oneida tribe, Seneca nation, Cayuga nation, Onondaga and later the Tuscarora tribe) and Inuit. Though not as technologically advanced as the Mesoamerican civilizations